FAQs About Environmental Sampling

What is environmental sampling?

Environmental sampling is a scientific technique used in biology, ecology, and conservation. It involves taking samples from the environment to learn about the flora and fauna of a particular area. This information can be used to establish a habitat's biodiversity, the abundance of species, and the conditions in which these species live.

Environmental sampling is important because environmental contamination can contribute to contamination of finished products. Samples may be taken for public health purposes, environmental health, ecological reasons, health at work, or to build a picture of change over time.

There are several types of environmental sampling techniques, including:

• ✅Stratified sampling: Used where the sample area can be subdivided
• ✅Capture-recapture techniques: Used to estimate the unknown population size
• ✅Air sampling: Used for testing hazardous waste sites, air emissions from industry, and indoor air quality
• ✅Environmental surface sampling: Used for groundwater and surface water samples, analyses, and diagnostics to minimize pollution risks

Why is environmental sampling important

Environmental sampling is important for a number of reasons, including:

• ✅Supporting scientific theories: Samples and data from the natural environment can be used as evidence to support scientific theories.
• ✅Identifying rare species: Environmental sampling can be used to identify rare species.
• ✅Detecting harmful microbes: Environmental sampling can be used to detect harmful microbes.
• ✅Verifying sources of contamination: Environmental sampling can be used to verify sources of contamination.
• ✅Validating food safety programs: Environmental sampling can be used to validate food safety programs.
• ✅Learning about flora and fauna: Environmental sampling techniques are used in biology, ecology, and conservation to learn about the flora and fauna of a particular area.
• ✅Monitoring air and water effluents: Data may be collected to monitor air and water effluents.
• ✅Characterizing pollutant levels: Data may be collected to characterize pollutant levels in environmental media (air, water, soil, biota).

What is an example of an environmental sample?

Environmental samples can include: Air, Water, Soil, Biological materials, Wastes (liquids, solids, or sludges, Paint chips, Dust.

Water samples can be collected from:

• ✅Rivers
• ✅Lakes
• ✅The ocean
• ✅Underground water
• ✅Industrial waste water
• ✅Household waste water

The FDA may collect samples from the environment in a building where foods are produced to determine whether that environment contains harmful bacteria.

What are the approaches to environmental sampling?

There are several approaches to environmental sampling, including:

• ✅Systematic sampling: Used when the study area includes an environmental gradient, such as a sand dune system
• ✅Micro-TLC approach: A simple, low-cost protocol that can be used for preliminary samples screening
• ✅Sediment sampling: Less time-dependent than other types of samples
• ✅Ambient environmental monitoring: Helps to determine the presence of pollutants

Other approaches to environmental sampling include:

• ✅Random
• ✅Judgmental (non-statistical)
• ✅Stratified
• ✅Haphazard

Environmental monitoring methods involve:

• ✅Assessing pollutant levels in the air
• ✅Evaluating the health of water bodies
• ✅Examining soil properties
• ✅Tracking species diversity and ecosystem health

The information collected can help implement control measures for reducing the level of pollutant concentration.

How do you preserve environmental samples?

Preserving environmental samples is important for long-term storage and to ensure the reproducibility of research outcomes.

Here are some methods for preserving environmental samples:

• ✅Refrigeration: The most practical and reliable method of preservation in the field.
• ✅Freezing: A common preservation procedure. However, precipitation frequently occurs when water samples are deep-frozen.
• ✅Cooling: Cooling to the temperature of 2 to 5°C.
• ✅Acidification: Acidification with sulfuric acid to pH < 2.
• ✅Alkalization: Alkalization with sodium hydroxide solution to pH < 11.
• ✅Chemical addition: Addition of chloroform or formaldehyde.
• ✅pH control: Keeping the sample as cool as possible without freezing.

Other methods for preserving environmental samples include:

• ✅Putting samples in ice
• ✅Filtration
• ✅Amber or opaque bottles
• ✅Storage at 0–5°C
• ✅Homogenizing the samples before quantities are removed from the parent sample for analysis

What is environmental swab sampling

Environmental swab sampling is a verification procedure that can provide evidence that a facility is being cleaned properly. It can also be used to determine if there is a pathogen contamination issue in a facility.

The method of choice for examining surfaces is swabbing of a known area (10- 100cm2) using a sterile swab that has been moistened in 10mL of neutralising diluent. The wet swab coats the surface being sampled and provides a liquid phase for cells from the surface to move into. The applied liquid containing the bacteria is then mopped up using a dry swab.

Environmental swabbing can be used in the food industry to inform food business owners and food regulators about how clean a food processing area is. It involves the microbiological testing of food preparation surfaces, equipment and utensils using various swab techniques to find out if pathogens are present.

Click to View → Mantacc ST-25 Environmental Sampling Kit with PBS Buffer

How do you collect swab samples for microbiological testing?

Here are some tips for collecting swab samples for microbiological testing:

• ✅Nasopharyngeal swab

  Use a flexible minitip flocked swab. Measure the distance from the patient's nostril to the nasopharynx and hold the swab at that location.

• ✅Routine microbiology

  Collect the specimen under good lighting. Pass the swab firmly over or into an area of suspected infection.

• ✅Skin swab

  Hold the swab so the shaft is parallel to the skin surface and rub the swab back and forth approximately 25-50 times along the surface.

• ✅Hand swab

  Make sure your clothes and hands are dust free. Open the swab sampling kit to expose just enough of the swab to grasp the green cap.

• ✅Wound swab

  Take the swab from the deepest part of the wound trying to avoid the superficial microflora. Gently cleanse wound with sterile water or saline to remove any slough before swabbing.

Click to View → Mantacc ST-25 Environmental Sampling Kit with PBS Buffer

How do you collect environmental swabs?

Here are some tips for collecting environmental swabs:

• ✅Gloves: Gloves are not mandatory, but are highly encouraged.
• ✅Swabs: Use a small pre-moistened swab attached to a long plastic handle, resembling a Q-Tip.
• ✅Template: Grip a sterilized template firmly and place it on the surface to be swabbed.
• ✅Swabbing: Roll the swab between your fingers and thumb to rotate it while swabbing.
• ✅Pressure: Apply sufficient pressure to create flex in the swab shaft.
• ✅Area: Swab a 4x4 inch or 10 by 10 centimeter square area in a crisscross pattern.
• ✅Collection: Collect swabs first from direct food contact surfaces such as tanks, utensils, and mixers.
• ✅Moistening: Moisten the swab with an appropriate neutralising liquid to inactivate any residual disinfectant which may be on the item being tested.

Why do you wet your swab before taking an environmental sample?

There are several reasons for moistening a swab before taking an environmental sample:

• ✅Coats the surface

  The wet swab coats the surface being sampled and provides a liquid phase for cells from the surface to move into.

• ✅Removes residues

  The swab is typically pre-wetted with water or another appropriate solvent in order to remove residues from the surface to be sampled.

• ✅Inactivates disinfectants

  The swabs should be moistened with an appropriate neutralising liquid to inactivate any residual disinfectant which may be on the item being tested.

• ✅Makes it more absorbent

  Moistening the tip of the swab makes it more absorbent and organisms will adhere more easily to a moist swab.

• ✅Ensures the swab isn't carrying its own bacteria

  Moistening the swab in sterile saline before sampling an area and transferring to an agar plate ensures that the swab itself isn't carrying its own bacteria that would further contaminate what microbes you're actually looking for.

When using a swab to sample, what surface area is recommended to sample?

Most companies swab areas of 25 square centimetres (4 square inches) to 100 square centimetres (16 square inches). However, there are no regulatory guidelines for selecting the size of the area to be sampled.

The swab sample collection method may be most appropriate for sampling small areas (10–25 square centimetres) with high agent concentration. It has limited value for large surface areas with a low agent concentration.

The technique is most effective on smooth surfaces such as glass, metal (including pipes), painted surfaces, and smooth vegetation surfaces such as leaves.

How do you calculate swab analysis?

Here are some formulas for calculating swab analysis:

• ✅Swab limit

  Swab limit (ug residue/swab) = acceptance criteria (ug residue/cm2) X swab area (cm2) X swab recovery (%)

• ✅PPM limit

  Divide by extraction volume and multiply by 1000 to give ppm limit per swab

• ✅Result per cm2

  Divide the count per swab by the area swabbed

• ✅Concentration

  The volume or weight of the solution is needed to calculate the concentration of the solution

• ✅% recovery

  % recovery = 100 * (quantity of analyte in the swab/quantity of analyte spiked on the coupon)

The swab method is a practical analysis method used in the detection of microorganisms regarding personnel hygiene and sanitation, surface control, environments, and food.

How much the minimum recovery should be in swab sampling?

The percentage of contaminant actually measured by the analytical technique when the swab is spiked with a known quantity of that species is called recovery.

A recovery of >80% is considered good, >50% reasonable and <50% questionable. Most sampling procedures should be expected to give results in the range of 50-100% recovery, with higher recoveries being preferred.

The formula for swab recovery is:

% recovery = 100 * (quantity of analyte in the swab/quantity of analyte spiked on the coupon)

The acceptable swab recovery depends on how that swab recovery is being used. For example, if the recovery is performed to qualify the sampling method without correction of either a limit or an analytical result then a recovery percentage such as 70% or more is typically required.

What is the difference between swab sample and rinse sample?

Swab sampling and rinse sampling are two common techniques for sampling cleaned surfaces.

Swab sampling is a direct surface sampling method, while rinse sampling is an indirect method.

Swab sampling

• ✅Direct sampling: A sterile material is rubbed across a surface to be analyzed for the presence of residue
• ✅Focuses on worst case locations
• ✅Used to prove that the cleaning process served its purpose

Rinse sampling

• ✅Indirect sampling: Collects and analyzes the rinse water or solvent that is used to wash the equipment after cleaning
• ✅Averages the values from each equipment surface
• ✅Less dependent on the sampler
• ✅Suitable for large or complex equipment
• ✅Allows sampling of a large surface area

What swabs are used in microbiology?

Here are some swabs used in microbiology:

• ✅Synthetic swabs: Such as rayon and Dacron, these are preferred over cotton swabs because they don't contain inhibitory or toxic substances.
• ✅Agar swabs: These can be used on intact skin and in natural body orifices.
• ✅Flocked rectal swabs: These are used by public health authorities to screen for multi-drug resistant enteric bacteria.
• ✅Flocked swabs: These are more user-friendly and efficient than traditional swabs.
• ✅Calcium alginate swabs: These can be used for culture collection from the eyes, ears, and nasopharynx.
• ✅Cotton swabs: These are often used to take microbiological cultures.
• ✅Rayon tipped swabs: These are soft and absorbent, and are an economical choice for many applications where cotton would not be suitable.
• ✅ESwabs: These can be used for culture of aerobic, anaerobic, and fastidious bacteria.
• ✅ICR swabs: These are gamma-irradiated and triple-sleeved for surface and personnel monitoring in critical areas.

What is the swab test procedure in microbiology?

A swab test in microbiology involves the following steps:

1. 1. Collect a specimen under good lighting.
2. 2. Obtain a sample of exudate, drainage, or purulent discharge if these are present.
3. 3. Return the swab to the transport tube.
4. 4. Break the media ampule at the base of the tube to moisten the swab.
5. 5. Use two swabs to take each sample: one wet, and one dry.
6. 6. The wet swab coats the surface being sampled and provides a liquid phase for cells from the surface to move into.
7. 7. The applied liquid containing the bacteria is then mopped up using a dry swab.
8. 8. The swab is returned into the test tube containing neutralizer or broth medium.
9. 9. Approximately 1 ml of the medium is acquired and plated onto a petri dish.

What is a CFU swab?

A CFU swab is a microbiological test that uses a swab to test for the number of microbes present in a sample. CFU stands for colony-forming unit. Each microbe in the original sample is trapped on a flat surface, given good conditions to grow, and will form a colony on the test medium.

There are two types of microbiological tests:

• ✅Qualitative: Tests for the presence or absence of pathogens
• ✅Quantitative: Tests for the count, such as cfu/cm²

The target count for enumeration tests is in the range of 0 to 300 colony forming units (CFU) per plate.

Environmental swabbing involves the microbiological testing of food preparation surfaces, equipment, and utensils using various swab techniques. It is used to verify whether a food businesses' cleaning and sanitation programs are effective.

What is a swab test in food microbiology?

A swab test in food microbiology is a non-invasive way to monitor surfaces for pathogens and other contaminants. The swab is rubbed on the surface of interest, and then subjected to microbial examination. The test results will tell you if there are any pathogens present on the surface in question, such as norovirus or E.

Environmental swabbing is used to verify whether a food businesses' cleaning and sanitation programs are effective. Common methods involve the use of sponges, wipes and cotton tipped swabs to collect samples. Wet-dry swabbing is a well-established method for the collection of environmental surface samples.

Food contact surface swab test standard

The ISO 18593:2004 standard specifies horizontal methods for sampling techniques using contact plates or swabs on surfaces in the food industry environment. The standard has been revised by ISO 18593:2018.

The most basic and widespread microbiological test for surface swabs is the “Standard Plate Count” (SPC). Other names for this test include the aerobic plate count, total viable count, and total microbial count.

The microbiological limit on food contact surfaces is:

• ✅≤10 cfu/cm2: Immediately after cleaning and disinfection
• ✅80-1000 cfu/cm2: Borderline
• ✅Over 1000 cfu/cm2: Unsatisfactory level

The target level is <80 cfu/cm2.

The US Public Health Service recommends no more than 100 colony forming units (CFUs) per 50 cm2 sampled. However, in most cases the type of microorganism is more important than the number.

The FDA microbiological limits for food are:

• ✅Less than 10,000 organisms/gram by aerobic plate count
• ✅Less than 10 yeasts and molds/gram
• ✅Negative for Salmonella, E. coli, coagulase positive Staphylococci, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium botulinum, or any other recognized microbial pathogen or any harmful microbial toxin

What is the safe level of microbial contamination?

This is for informational purposes only. You can consult a licensed medical professional for advice.

The acceptable level of microbial contamination in a given system can range from <10 colony forming units per ml (CFU/ml) to as high as 10^4 CFU/ml.

Here are some acceptable levels of microbial contamination in food:

• ✅S. aureus

  The acceptable level in ready-to-eat food should be below 103 colony-forming units per gram (cfu/g) of food.

• ✅Mesophilic microorganisms

  The hygiene status of kitchen utensils/crockery is classified as “satisfactory” if there are less than 100 CFU of mesophilic microorganisms at 30 °C per swab/plate.

• ✅Ready-to-eat foods

  Products intended for consumption in their raw form should contain less than 100 CFU/gram.

Microbial contamination happens when a food has been contaminated by microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, mould, fungi, and toxins. For example, undercooking chicken can give rise to campylobacter, a type of bacteria.

How do you swab for Listeria?

Here are some tips for swabbing for Listeria:

• ✅Surface: The area to be swabbed should not contain any chemical residues that may inhibit or interfere with the growth of Listeria spp.
• ✅Swab: Use a sterile nonabsorbent swab, such as cotton, calcium alginate, Dacron, or rayon.
• ✅Moisten: Moisten the swab with rinse solution.
• ✅Wipe: Hold the swab at a 30° angle and wipe the sample area using a back-and-forth motion, rotating the swab as you wipe.
• ✅Rinse: Rinse after each swab.
• ✅Incubate: Replace swab back into tube containing ready-to-use regeants and incubate for 24 to 48 hours.
• ✅Color: After incubation a turquoise-blue colour indicates presumptive presence of Listeria monocytogenes or L. ivanovii.

What is the total plate count in food safety?

The total plate count (TPC) is a method for estimating the total number of microorganisms in a material. This includes all aerobic bacteria, yeast, molds, and fungi that grow in the specific agar. The TPC is an indicator of bacteria load in a sample. It can be used to measure the safety of a product or water supply.

The TPC is also known as the total viable count or standard plate count (SPC). The SPC is the colony count of the mesophilic bacteria growing under aerobic condition on standard methods agar (Plate Count Agar). The SPC is a representative index indicating the degree of the microbial contamination of the food.

The TPC is used as an indicator of bacteria load in a sample. It can be used to measure the safety of a product or water supply.

What is the difference among CFU, TPC and TVC?

CFU stands for colony forming unit. It's a microbiological term that indicates the number of cells that can multiply to form a colony. CFU is determined by counting the individual colonies on a plate. Each colony counted on the plate equates to one CFU.

TPC stands for total plate count. It's also known as the aerobic plate count, standard plate count (SPC), total viable count (TVC), or mesophilic count. TPC represents the number of colony forming units (CFU) per g (or per mL) of growing microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, and mold.

TVC stands for total viable count. It's a test that estimates the total numbers of microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeast, or mold species, that are present in a water sample. TVC counts are recorded as colony forming units (CFU) where each colony counted on the plate equates to one CFU.

Click to View → Mantacc Environmental Sampling Kits